Practice-based learning

In their research on informal learning methods, Cheetham and Chivers (2005) aimed at developing taxonomy of informal professional learning methods. Their research was based on personal interviews and survey data. Both, interview and survey respondents were asked to rate each of ten common styles of informal learning. After analysis, in order of rated importance, these were: a) on the job learning; b) working alongside more experienced colleagues; c) working as a part of a team; d) self analysis or reflection; e) learning from clients/customers/patients; f) networking with others doing a similar job; g) learning through training/training others; h) support from a mentor of some kind; i) use of a role model; and j) pre-entry experience.

In order to arrive at the taxonomy, Cheetham and Chivers (2005) drew on both interviews and surveys. All the respondents were asked to describe their formative experiences in detail. Using detailed content analysis, the taxonomy was reported with 12 general learning processes. 

Practice and repetition

This was reported as a beneficial tool in becoming proficient at a job. Certain respondents highlighted the importance of doing things over to learn something (iteration). However, some respondents reported reaching a plateau and some even reported a regression in effectiveness. Previous research in psychology has noted over-learning to have negative effects (eg. Drever, 1964). However, in their research, Cheetham and Chivers (2005) reported over-learning to have positive results.

Reflection

Although, only a small number of respondents indicated that reflection was beneficial in formative stages, considerable numbers found reflection to be of vital importance in continued development (eg. to improve day-to-day performance). Respondents highlighted the importance of self-knowledge and self-appraisal as it helped in recognising one’s strengths, weaknesses and being realistic in one’s aims.

Observation and copying

Many respondents highlighted the importance of observation as observing colleagues’ behaviour had helped them improve their own personal skills, A part of observation and copying is the function of role models. 

Feedback

Respondents reported the importance feedback from superiors, mentors, colleagues, clients and patients. Further, they stressed the roles of actively seeking feedback and indirect feedback during interaction. Significant proportion of respondents stressed on the importance of listening skills and identified clients, patients or customers as rich sources of learning.

Extra-occupational transfer

Respondents reflected on the importance of ‘out of work’ activities, relevant to their profession, and noted that it helped them develop their skills. Cheetham and Chivers (2005) pointed that pre-entry experience (experience gained from previous activities and assignments), learning transferred from formal education and out of work learning (eg. hobby, voluntary work etc.) were important aspects of extra-occupational transfer. 

Stretching activities

A number of respondents described an opportunity to operate at a higher level than their normal grade in their formative experience as highly beneficial. It gave respondents a chance to view things from a strategic perspective and confidence to operate at a higher level. However, without proper support such experiences can prove to be overwhelming and have a negative impact.

Perspective changing / switching

Significant number of respondents pointed that being forced to change perspective (eg. when a doctor is admitted as a patient and is forced to view things from a patient’s perspective) had given them a chance to view a situation or their profession itself from a different standpoint. A number of respondents reported to have formative benefits from working in a different culture, eg. working abroad.

Mentor / coach interaction

Only a small proportion of interviewees reported to have a mentor, though a significant number identified individuals who served as unofficial mentors. Of those who identified mentoring as an important contributor, several reported that individual concerned was not their formal mentor but someone with whom they had developed a unofficial mentoring relationship. The key to success of mentoring was reported to depend as much on compatibility as on coaching skills of the mentor.

Unconscious absorption or osmosis

Many interview respondents reported to have found working alongside experienced colleagues a rich source of learning where they recounted an absorbing skills and other behaviours on a nearly unconscious level. A similar form of effective learning was reported by networking with fellow professionals particularly from different organisations or specialisations 

Use of psychological / neurological devices or techniques

A number of respondents reported of benefits of breaking down complex situations or ideas into simpler stages, use of conceptual models or mind maps. Number of respondents reported to use techniques associated with lateral thinking. 

Articulation

A number of interviewees reported that being forced to articulate their work either orally or in writing was a great source of learning. A similar beneficial source of learning was through teaching others, where teaching, training or mentoring new entrants had helped their self-development.

Collaboration / liaison

Many respondents identified and stressed learning benefits derived from working in teams and other collaborative techniques. Such collaborative efforts were reported to have better results than individual efforts and also had beneficial effects on morale and confidence of those involved. An equally important point was diversity in teams, where people added and benefited from different styles and approaches.

Cheetham and Chivers (2005) presented this taxonomy as a simplified version and reported that “… if desired it can be extended to give sub-divisions of learning experiences” (p. 205). The taxonomy provides a checklist of possible learning opportunities and approaches.